Witness Memory as Evidence in Criminal Trials

Witness Memory as Evidence in Criminal Trials 1. When, and why, are witnesses’ memories unreliable as evidence in criminal trials in England and Wales? Memory Memory is one’s ability to recall the past events. Memory let us explain our personal experiences and perception about anything which is occurred in past. Types Of Memory There are three types of memory Episodic Memory Episodic memory refers to our memory of special event like accident, death etc. Semantic Memory There are too many general knowledge is stored in one’s mind which comes under the semantic memory type. It also refers to the information which is stored in our mind to perform any skill. It also tells us how to perform in some repeated situation. Procedural Memory Understanding the procedural memory is rather difficult to understand and contains different kind of information. Generally it refers to series of events which occurred on numerous times. Importance Of Witness Memory Witness memory is a fuel of any investigation because it let investigator to collect information about incident but human memory is too fragile to exactly remember every moment. There are also numerous factors involved which affect witness memory that is environment factors, witness factors, stress levels of the witness/victim, weapon focus. When Witness Memory Is Unreliable As Evidence? Witnesses memories are unreliable as evidence in criminal trials in England and Wales when there is a â€Å"TurnBull† direction indicated the state of witness at the time of incident happened because so many researches has found the massive impression on the quality of information. What Is TurnBull? There are too many environmental factors which affect the memory of witness and can damage the quality and quantity of information. R. V. Turnbull guidance proposed a term ADVOKATE Amount of time one observed Distance – What was the distance between event and witness Visibility – How much the scene was clear? Obstruction – Was there anything obscuring the view? Known or seen before – If the situation was familiar? Any reason to remember – What is the reason behind to remember. Time lapse – How long the exposure of event? Error or material discrepancy – Is there any discrepancy between the fact and the description (Booklet). Why Witness State Is Unreliable In England and Wales, Evidence is not reliable, when there is a Turnbull direction in a state of witness because sometime witness rely on external help to recall the incident or he may have perceived wrongly due to distance or visibility or both (Bull, 1999) Generally people under the investigation are not ready to recall the incident currently. Many factors like fear, stress and nervousness can affect their quality of information. Sometimes they rely on external resources to feed them and they wrongly perceive the series of happening occurred at TBR events. Sometimes witness may lie for any previous dispute or grudge. Witness may be biased and can provide wrong information to affect the investigation Conclusion Since witness memory depends on lots of factors which are indicated through the famous term ADVOKATE therefore investigation should be taken with caution and every term of ADVOKATE should be properly and clearly note down. To gather worthy information from the witness, should check the witness personal preference of biasness or favoritism. It should also be checked that whether the witness is pressurized by the culprit to speak lie. What changes should be made, to the procedures for identifying suspects in criminal investigations in England and Wales, according to psychological research? Human memory is too fragile to exactly remember the incident which happened that is why interviewing the witness to identifying the suspect is rather difficult task. It can also affect by the â€Å"Turnbull† directions. Usually witness replies the interviewer in broad term and can only describe six or seven characteristics of suspect like age (Between 20-30) or height (between 5’6’’ – 5’8’’) that is why it is always difficult to get accurate knowledge about victim. The accurate information may be collected through cognitive interview but this type of interview demands too much time to conclude things. These re the reasons for which psychological research stress on the identification parade to identify the culprit. (Kapardis ebrary, 2010) Why Should Be Identification Parade Arranged? Identification parade are arranged to avoid two hurdles of identifying the culprit. Verbal Overshadowing In most of crime, during the investigation, witness is interviewed by more than one officer and provided stream of information due to which he can mix up the details which is stored in witnesses’ mind and the information he is provided by the officers about culprit. If identification parade is arranged then a witness can easily identify the suspect or the person who is somehow linked with the crime. Information To The Public Some crimes are needed to announce in public through media and police shows the picture, video or sketch of suspect in public. Sometimes a totally innocent person can be suspected and shown to public. Witnesses, after seeing the police announcement about suspect can to mix-up the faces of suspect with actual culprit. In that case, after the identification parade, officers are directed to ask witnesses whether they have seen any broadcast on media or not? Asking directly to the witness is rather strange. According to researchers, it is more appropriate to ask logically by the witness rather than directly. Changing Facial Expressions. Facial expressions of people are changed with the passage of time due to weight, tiredness, hair color or culprit can deliberately change it to be hidden from the police but if culprit is arrested for identification parade then he cannot change his facial expression and can be identified by the witness. Conclusion Investigation with witness should be deal with cautious and interviewer should know the art of interviewing to get accurate information. Investigator should avoid direct questions like was that man wearing black shirt? Or did you see blood spot on right side of window? It is recommended to ask series of questions to grab the fact like the series below. What have you seen at spot? Can you tell us the gender of person you have seen? What was he wearing? It is also recommended to setup interview as soon as possible because there is margin of memory fail. Describe the extent to which offender profiling is relied upon both in criminal investigations and in criminal trials in England and Wales.? Offender Profiling Offender profiling is a tool of investigation about the culprit with the help of evidences. Offender profiling is commonly perceive as a magical ability of investigator to put hands on the culprit. It is also called psychological profiling, criminal personality profiling, profile analysis and the offender profiling is carried by the profilers or offender profilers. Offender profiling is a psychological assessment of evidence which is collected from the crime scene. Offender profiler collects evidence from the crime scene and assess assumes the personality type which usually exhibits similar patterns (Jackson Bekerian, 1997). Aims Of Profiling The aim of profiling is to get closer to suspect and get the answer of three questions What happened at the spot of incident? What personality type can be involved in it? What personality traits can be possessed by that personality type? These questions are generally analyzed by the psychologist who are expert of their field and are outside of the police department. Limitations Of Offender Profiling Although the crime scene can reflect the personality of offender and psychiatrist put insights on it but sometimes searching the link between the crime and mental state of offender is not cleared or understandable. It is also criticized that psychologist are helpful only in the crime which are committed in extreme cases of mental illness. They are not much useful in the crimes which are not committed due to mental illness. One more criticism is usually done on clinical approach that psychologists works according to science of psychology which is remain ambiguous and has flaws in it. Understanding and evaluating complex human psyche is rather difficult task and sometimes it is understood completely wrong Conclusion Offender profiling is no doubt a significant part of crime investigation but it is also limited in a way. It restricts psychiatrist to some specific pattern of personality traits while human behavior is always complex and cannot read accurately always. It is not necessary that crime scene always show the exact pattern of behavior which culprit exhibit. Identify the key ways in which the research, into common forms of decision-error, might inform and improve practice in criminal investigations and trials? Deception Identifying someone’s lie is not easy according to research reaching correct result is tending to fall between 50 to 60 percent. The more common reason of this trend is over confidence of people in their ability to judge others. Detection Of Deception Despite of fact that deception cannot be easily caught, people also make some basic judgment errors. These judgment errors are categorized in five types. Pinocchio’s Nose There is indeed some universal signs of lying like stammering, avoid eye contact, blushing but it cannot equally apply to everybody on the earth. So these universal signals may guide to wrong direction. Erroneous Assumptions Some people thing that deception can easily be caught by facial expression or they are the master of face reading. Some people do have the ability of face reading but in general this ability is over estimated. Othello Error This type of error is actually comes in existence due to Shakespeare’s drama where Othello achieved his target by accusing Desdemona but in modern criminal justice system this error misleads because most of people became nervous and feared when the feel that they are under observation. The Plausibility Problem Plausible and implausible problems have problem to judge right because we do not believe implausible event if it is reported by some old man. Countermeasures A natural liar can deceive the interviewer after noticing the interviewer suspicion and can adjust his/her behavior accordingly. Techniques To Improve Decision Errors Scholars and researchers proposed three techniques of improving decision errors. Un- spoken deeds Lying can be judged by the entire body language which includes gestures, postures, facial expressions, voice quality etc. Some common proposed techniques of judging un spoken deeds are: Decrease in movement of entire legs till feet Decrease in hand movements Sudden increase and decrease in voice. These all assumed signs should be deal with cautious because it cannot be true in every situation like deception errors and may lead to in accurate judgment. Spoken Deeds Numerous techniques are used to judge the â€Å"REAL† of words that are written or spoken. The two most famous techniques of read between the lines are: Statement Validity Analysis (SVA) which is developed by Steller and Kohnken in 1997 which is then incorporated by Criteria Based Content Analysis (CBCA). It implies that our account is different in content and quality in case of reality or imagination. This techniques uses nineteen criteria to judge a statement. This technique is not commonly use in U.K. Physiological Methods The most common technique of physiological method is Polygraph, which measures physiological reaction like heart beat, sweating etc to check the deception. The polygraph is conducted through different sensors that are attached to the body and every physiological reaction recorded as a graphical presentation. Although polygraph is considered as very effective tool of detecting deception and has been used in different countries but it is not used in U.K. criminal justice system due to complex human nature and the fact that human behavior and their psychological reactions are vary from person to person. Conclusion To improve decision making process in U.K spoken deeds and physiological test should be considered because these two techniques have been using in different countries and showing successful results to some extent but these techniques should be used with the caution and must not be rated overly. It should be used with the understanding that human nature varies from person to person and same reactions cannot be equally applied to everybody Bibliography Booklet. (n.d.). Retrieved from Police Service Of Northern Ireland: http://www.psni.police.uk/de/public_order_8th_edition.pdf Milne, R. and Bull, R. (1999).Investigative interviewing: Psychology and practice. Chichester: Wiley.† Kapardis, A., ebrary, I. (2010). Psychology and law: a critical introduction. New York: Cambridge University Press 2010. 1 | Page

Goegraphy of Dominica :: Essays Papers

Goegraphy The geography of Dominica is quite unique. It is an island fortress unlike any other island in the Caribbean, and is the largest and most mountainous of the Windward Islands. The island was created by volcanic activity, and still today shows signs of active volcanic activity. Its steep mountains prevented colonists from completely taking over and have made the island a prime destination for Eco-tourists. The island contains over 3,000 peaks, the tallest of which are Morne Diablotin (4,747 ft) and Morne Trois Pitons (4,600ft). (www.delphis.com) The island itself is located between the French islands of Guadeloupe to the north and Martinique to the south. It is 29 miles long and 16 miles wide, and covers 290 square miles. Its exact location is approximately 15 degrees North and 61 degrees West (www.delphis.dm). The island of Dominica is home to the only surviving population of Carib Indians. This was only possible because of Dominica’s treacherous mountains. Early European colonist were not able to drive out or kill all the natives as they had done on other islands. The Caribs now live in the â€Å"Carib Territory†, a 3700-acre reservation on the northeast coast, which was given to them in 1903. The reservation has a chief and is home to between 300 – 3000 Caribs (the exact number of Caribs is hard to determine because without detail genealogy records it hard to prove or disprove that someone actually is a Carib). (www.delphis.dm) The recent boom in eco-tourism has made Dominica one of the premiere tourist destinations both in the Caribbean and in the world. In recent years Dominica has designated more national parks, forests and marine reserves per capita than nearly anywhere else in the world. Dominica’s largest national park is the Morne Trois Pitons National Park. It covers 17,000 acres (9% of the island), and is home to the world’s largest boiling lake. The lake is 70 yards across with an unknown depth and the lake is situated over a massive volcanic sulfur vent, which keeps the water temperature between 180 – 197 degrees Fahrenheit. The park is also home to several waterfalls over 100 feet tall. The average temperature range is between 75 and 85 degrees Fahrenheit. Average rainfall varies between 50 inches on coastal areas, and 300 inches with in the interior. The driest months are from January to June, and hurricane season which is usually between July and early October.

Philosophy of Education Essay

It was Chesterton, an English essayist, who once said that â€Å"the most practical thing about a man is his view of the universe – his philosophy† (Hocking 4).   Man’s philosophy is generally referred to as the sum of all his beliefs and views about the world which guide his actions.   His beliefs comprise all those judgments, whether they are based on convictions or impressions, which he habitually lives by. During the pre-service education and throughout the teaching career, teachers will have to face up to what it means to live and to teach in a society that gives the individual freedom to hold different beliefs and values.   In this society there seems to be no single â€Å"right† way of thinking about and doing things in education.   How teachers deal with school matters – objectives, contents, and methods – depend very much on their own individual beliefs and values.   They should be willing to take responsibility for giving their own answers to many problems they will meet in their classrooms regarding goals and values, and ways of teaching their students. 1. Organizing your classroom & materials. The teacher in the classroom is a veritable manager.   The success of the activities in the classroom depends on the ability of the teacher as classroom manager.   He is at the helm of all activities, and these activities will succeed depending on how well he can steer and guide them properly.   One of the most difficult problems that confront a beginning teacher is classroom management.   Unfortunately, he does not learn techniques of proper classroom management from books.   He merely gets suggestions on how to mange a class, but there is nothing like teaching experience that will really teach him all the tricks of classroom management. Hence, classroom management is one of the main concerns of teachers, administrators, and parents.  Ã‚   If the school is to live up to the community’s expectation that it is a learning-producing enterprise, the individual classrooms which comprise the school must contribute to the school’s educational productivity. Learning is the central goal of the total school operation, and teaching is the school’s basic production technique.   Effective teaching and effective learning take place in well-managed classrooms. When class time is consumed by management problems, students are the losers, for little real learning takes place.   As every teacher knows, good classroom management is one of the strongest influences on academic learning. 2. Choosing rules & procedures. A well managed classroom is hardly possible without laws, regulations, and conventions.   The classroom in itself is a society and needs its own rules and regulations to keep peace and harmony within it.   Certain classroom activities can be made automatic in the sense that they can be performed without much thought, especially when they have become habitual.   Such activities, we say, have become routinized.   It is apparent that routinizing classroom rules and procedures can help the teacher a lot in classroom management.   There are no hard-and-fast rules as to which activities can be reduced to routine.   Routinizing would depend on such factors as size of the class, the nature of students, materials available, arrangement of equipment, and the like. There are certain advantages in routinizing classroom rules and procedures and these are economy in time and effort, prevent confusion, and promote learning activity.   Much time is wasted on administrative activities that are not handled in a well-organized manner.   Activities that are repeatedly done may well be routinized so that pupils will know exactly what should be done. Some disadvantages should, however, be mentioned if routine factors are overmechanized.   If every little activity in the classroom is mechanized, no room for initiative is left to the pupils.   They may behave like automatons and certainly creativity is destroyed.   The teacher is reduced to an autocratic general and the pupils are regimented soldiers who merely wait for the chief’s signal or command.   Such a situation leads to blind obedience and acceptance of rules and procedures.   This type of atmosphere must be avoided by the teacher. Certain classroom rules and procedure, though, can be routinized so that more time can be devoted or allotted to more significant activities.   Among these activities are the roll calls, seating, handling materials and devices, classroom courtesies, and responses to the bell signals. The main goal here is to save time and effort.   Pupils should be made to understand and learn the value of time.   The old saying that time is gold should be clearly impressed on the minds of children. 3. Managing student work. One aspect of classroom management deals with managing student work.   The teacher takes full charge of the learning situation should manipulate the learner and the situation to produce the desired learning.   Managing implies arranging the learning situation so that the learner comes face to face with the stimulating problem.   While it is true that most teaching tends to foster teacher domination, manipulation, an intervention rather than the development of a genuine helping relationship, teachers can learn to dominate less and get students to participate more.   It is good practice for teachers not to repeat their questions, answer their own questions, or repeat answers of students. Some teachers tend to be autocratic or authoritarian.   Experience and research findings show that democratic teachers produce better learning results than those who dominate, control, or manipulate learning situations.   Teachers should determine the psychological needs of their students and adapt their teaching styles accordingly.   The teacher who encourages a two-way communication in the classroom insures a favorable teaching-learning climate.   To understand better the complexities of learning and classroom behavior, classrooms must be pupil centered rather than teacher centered. 4. Getting off to a good start. Getting off a good start requires careful attention to how teacher’s teach rules and procedures to their classes.   The tone of the class is set by the personal disposition that a teacher displays.   A teacher should bring a cheerful, pleasant and confident disposition to the classroom.   Once inside the room, a teacher’s face must be lit with joy to brighten the atmosphere.   Then, a teacher should take the necessary time during the first day of class to describe carefully your expectations for behavior and work.   Teachers should not be in a hurry to get started on content activities that teaching good behavior is neglected.   Rather, combine learning about procedures, rules, and course requirements with your initial content activities in order to build the foundation for the whole year program. 5. Planning & conducting instruction. Just as good classroom management enhances instruction by helping to create a good environment for learning, so too does effective instruction contribute to well-managed classroom.   With the change of emphasis on educational objectives, with the inclusion of more outcomes learning, with the focus on the child as the most important factor in the educational process, the concept of conducting instruction has likewise diversified and broadened.   In recent years, newer and more informal methods of instruction have come about.   Current practices have gradually replaced the undesirable features of so-called lesson hearing instruction.   This is due in part to the gradual acceptance of the newer philosophy of education, i.e. education is not merely a process of learning facts and storing knowledge, but it is concerned with the many sided development of the individual – social, emotional, and mental- including he ability to meet social needs. 6. Managing cooperative learning groups. Cooperative learning in mathematics is essential if math teachers are to promote the goals of problem-solving competency, ability to communicate mathematically, ability to reason mathematically, valuing of mathematics, and self-confidence in one’s ability to apply mathematics, and self-confidence in one’s ability to apply mathematical knowledge to new problem situations in one’s world.   Although competitive and individualistic assignments should at times be given (even though they place students in the role of being passive recipients of information), the dominant goal structure in math should be cooperative. There are a number of fairly simple ways teachers may begin to use cooperative learning in mathematics classes, including having students turn to their partners to decide on an answer to a question or having students work in pairs to check each other’s homework, involves far more than simply assigning students to groups and telling them  to work together. The teacher’s role in structuring learning situations cooperatively involves clearly specifying the objectives for the lesson, placing students in learning groups and providing appropriate materials, clearly explaining the cooperative goal structure and learning task, monitoring students as they work, and evaluating students` performance.   Teaching students the required interpersonal and small-group skills can be done simultaneously with teaching academic material.   In order to sustain the long-term implementation and in-classroom help and assistance needed to gain expertise in cooperative learning, teachers need support groups made up of colleagues who are also committed to mastering cooperative learning. 7. Maintaining appropriate student behavior. A number of educators have formulated some suggestions on ways to maintain good classroom student behavior.   The suggestions range from how to encourage students to behave and how to develop and maintain a positive approach to classroom management.   Some of these suggestions commonly used in the classrooms are: (1) Act as if you expect students to be orderly from the first day on; (2) Expect everyone’s attention before starting to teach.   Stop when there is noise.   Don’t teach over individual or group chatter ;(3) don’t talk too much as after a while, you lose the students` attention.   Involve the students in activities, ask questions, pose problems, etc. ;(4)   Hold students accountable for abiding by rules. 8. Communication skills for teachers. Making a lesson presentation basically requires mastery and understanding of goals, skills and criteria for effective communication.   Communication skills is also at the very core of effective teaching.   As most teacher would agree that to communicate well is to teach well.   In the skillful use of the question more than anything else lies the fine art of teaching; for in it we have the guide to clear and vivid ideas, and the quick spur to imagination, the stimulus to thought, the incentive to action. 9. Managing problem behavior. It has been stressed time and again that good classroom discipline is indispensable to an effective learning situation.   All teachers, old or young, old or new in the service, are faced with problems of discipline. It is true that some teachers can maintain better discipline than can others. It is suggested that the best approach should be positive rather than negative.   The best measure should be preventive rather than remedial.   â€Å"An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure,† so the saying goes.   This adage is exactly what should guide the teacher.   Knowing the possible causes of disciplinary problems, the teacher should strive to eliminate them. 10. Managing special groups. One of the special challenges a teacher should face is managing special groups successfully.   Of course, these groups have an impact on the management of student behavior as well as on instruction.   Experience have proven that attempting to cope with these special groups by using many different assignments, providing an individualized, self-paced program, or using small group instruction extensively in secondary school increases the complexity of classroom management, requires a great deal of planning and preparation, and require instructional materials that are not readily available.   So, rather than altering the instructional approach, experienced teachers provide for different levels of student ability by supplementing their whole-class instruction with limited use of special materials, activities , assignments, and small group work. So, to the question of which administrative procedure is most effective in managing special groups, only one answer can be given.   All ca n be effective if used with discretion and with the right children. Conclusion The teacher’s total philosophy of life cannot be separated from his philosophy of education, his learning theory, and his methods of teaching.   In other words, how he thinks about his work and the way he performs his functions as a teacher are derived from what he believes about the nature of the world, knowledge, and values. In philosophical terms, his world-view lies in the realm of the metaphysical, his knowledge-view in the epistemological, and his values in the axiological.   These are the philosophies which teachers consciously or unconsciously deal with in the teaching world. Every committed teacher tries to work out his own philosophy of education, clarifies his beliefs and ideals to make his teaching meaningful to himself and to his students.   Without a philosophy of education, the teacher will be easily swayed by fads in education.   Because his life and work involve making choices and decisions, the teacher cannot avoid having a philosophy.   Even when courses of study are dictated, he always has the freedom to decide how he will teach and to select the contents and methods of teaching.

Case Study Chloe’s Story Essay

The serous membrane in Chloe’s abdomen contains the peritoneum. The peritoneum is the largest serous membrane of the body which includes the greater omentum, the largest peritoneal fold, which drapes over the transverse colon and the coils of the small intestine, and contains a considerable amount of adipose tissue. Involuntary contraction of pharyngeal stage is the beginning stage of swallowing it begins with the passage of water into the oropharynx. When water enters the esophagus the esophageal stage begin where peristalsis occurs with coordinated contractions and relaxation of muscles to propel water into the stomach. With the bypass of the duodenum, Chyme cannot not periodically be forced through the pyloric sphincter in gastric emptying. The proteins will have difficulty being easily broken down into smaller molecules in the chemical digestion of proteins. By the enzyme Lipase. Rapid or major weight loss increases a person’s risk of developing gallstones. These meals should be high in protein. Because A change in diet, no longer consuming high fatty and high cholesterol foods. Yes. Nutritional deficiencies, like most iron and calcium is absorbed in the duodenum, the first part of the intestine that is bypassed by these operations. Calcium deficiency can lead to osteoporosis , and iron deficiency can cause anemia. Many vitamins and minerals are absorbed in the part of the small intestine bypassed by this surgery. The individual must commit to a lifetime of taking nutritional supplements to prevent serious vitamin and mineral deficiencies. A large number of microvilli in the small intestines greatly increases the surface area of the plasma membrane, larger amounts of digested nutrients can diffuse into absorptive cells. Most digestion and absorption occurs in the small intestine. Vitamin B12 must be combined with intrinsic factors produced by the stomach for its absorption by active transport in the ileum. Because it can or may be manifested as a variety of symptoms since B12 is widely used in the body. Severe fatigue may occur initially. Effects on the nervous system can be wide-ranging, and include weakness, numbness and tingling of the limbs, memory loss, confusion, delusion, poor balance and reflexes, hearing difficulties, and even dementia. Severe deficiency may appear similar to multiple sclerosis. Nausea and diarrhea are possible gastrointestinal signs. The anemia that results from prolonged deficiency may also be seen as a pallor especially in mucous membranes such as the gums and the lining of the inner surface of the eye. Megaloblastic anemia is a common result of inadequate B12. This condition can also result if a person stops secreting enough intrinsic factor in the stomach, a substance essential.

The Battle against Chaos and Challenging Inequities

The Battle against Chaos and Challenging Inequities Alan Sears and James Cairns in their book A Good Book, in Theory: Making Sense through Inquiry present the most influential theories of the social development and changes.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Battle against Chaos and Challenging Inequities specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The battle against chaos as the main function of the societal regulation as it is outlined in the social order model and challenging inequities as the driving force for the social transformation as it is outlined in the conflict theory explain the main underlying processes of the societal development from different theoretical perspectives. According to the social order perspective, the main function of the society rules is preventing the treat of chaos and savagery in the community. The battle against chaos can be defined as the society control over its members intended to protect them from their inherently brutal selves through soc ializing them. It is assumed that were it not for the society regulations, every individual would act according to his/her narrow self-interests disregarding the interests of the others (Sears and Cairns 17). An interesting example of the community degradation due to the lack of social order can be found in the book Lord of Flies by Golding in which a group of children left on a desert island do not manage to preserve their civilization and finally go wild. Thus, the plot of this book illustrates the idea that the social order can be regarded as the product of the societal control which is significant for preventing the chaos and bloodshed characteristic of the primitive tribes lacking these regulations. Another assumption which can be driven from the central idea of the battle against the chaos as the primary function of the social order is that a strong set of common values is required for preserving the society order.Advertising Looking for essay on american literature? L et's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More As compared to the external policies, the self-control and the established habit of regulating oneself are more effective for preventing the degradation to the level of the self-serving brutality.  In that regard, the social stratification can threaten the appropriate societal order because the individuals who have less power will consider the order as unjust and would not share the common values. Then, the pluralism of the political processes and the negotiations between the competing interest groups when solving certain significant problems is significant for maintaining the social order. For this reason Sears and Cairns develop the idea that a long-term modernization and constant social changes are important for eliminating unjust social practices, preserving social order and ensuring the country’s progress and prosperity. In contrast to the social order perspective viewing the pres ervation of the social order as the necessary battle against the possible chaos, the conflict model emphasizes the role of modern society in creating the inequalities which are put into its basis. The challenging inequities are viewed as the struggle between the disadvantages groups and those who occupy the power positions which results in the conflict of interests and is followed by social changes (Sears and Cairns 20). The examples of labor unions intended to protect the rights of the employees and feminist movement struggling for the equal pay and rights of women can illustrate the conflict perspective upon the role of society control in the social processes and changes. The central assumption of the conflict model is that the modern society is based upon challenging inequalities which can be regarded as the driving forces of the social changes.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Battle against Chaos and Challenging Inequities specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In general, it can be concluded that the concept of the battle against the chaos was used by Sears and Cairns for explaining the role of societal regulations from the social order perspective, whereas the concept of challenging inequities was intended to illustrate the main driving force of the social change according to the conflict model of society development. Sears, Alan and James Cairns. A Good Book, in Theory: Making Sense through Inquiry. North York: University of Toronto Press Incorporated, 2010. Print.

The Current Crisis Sheds More Light on Macroeconomics than vice-versa Essay

The Current Crisis Sheds More Light on Macroeconomics than vice-versa - Essay Example On a personal stand, it would be said that indeed the current crisis sheds more light on macroeconomics and that the various macroeconomic conditions practiced across the globe could greatly be attributed to why the global economic state has not seen any impressive growth over the few years. Indeed, instead of amassing the overall aim of instituting various macroeconomic policies to alleviate poverty and make the economic conditions of countries and its populaces better, certain critical misplaced priorities and mismanagement on the part of regulators of macroeconomic conditions have led to a total failure of the ambition. Today, the whole world seems to be in a shamble and economists continues to argue on which line of action is the best – whether macroeconomic conditioning or microeconomic conditioning. In the following text, specific macroeconomic condition, the roles they were expected to play in influencing global economic growth, and how they have failed and created cris is will be looked at. Again, specific contributing factors to why dependence on macroeconomics could not help but led to global economic crisis will be discussed. Finally, recommendations shall be made on how to revive the crisis through macroeconomics. Assessing Specific Macroeconomic Conditions and how they relate to Economic Crisis National Output and Income The output and input of a country is a major indication of the performance of the country economically. Given any period of time; mostly over one year, each nation produces certain about of viable product. Some of these viable products are goods whereas others are services. To find the national output of a particular country, the total production of viable products is summed up. The reason for using the national output to determine the macroeconomic performance of a country is the reason that the viable products, be they goods or services are considered to be tradable products that can yield the country economic income and re venue. National output is therefore considered to be an economic value. In light of this, Riley (2006) posits that the national output can be used to determine the value added to the economy of a particular country. He defines value added as â€Å"the increase in the value of a product at each successive stage of the production process.† This is where the need for using the national output to create wealth and thus alleviate a country from economic crisis and hardships come in. This assertion is made against the backdrop that the value added is expected to improve all aspects of a country’s production process and thus make the economic lives of the citizenry at all levels better. It is for this reason that the value added and national output are used to determine the gross domestic product of a nation. Again, the national output is closely related to national income because it is expected that the production rate and production proceeds of a country would determine how much the country will earn on the global economic market. For each sale made, there is an added income to the national economic coffers. This is one reason why the national output is easily used to determine the gross domestic product of a country. According to Riley (2006),†this measure of GDP adds together the value of output produced by each of the productive sectors in the economy using

Assessment and decision making regarding depresion in dementia Assignment

Assessment and decision making regarding depresion in dementia - Assignment Example Among the signs and symptoms of dementia are despaired cognitive capabilities in memory, language, depression and poor problem-solving attention (Wang et al., 2007). The depressive nature of dementia makes it a rather delicate condition, requiring medical practitioners such as psychotherapists and physicians to make certain critical decisions regarding its management and treatment (Weiner et al., 2007). Consequently, guidelines for the evaluation of and decision-making on depression in dementia patients have since been developed. It is the prevalence, the depressive nature of dementia and its increased importance as a psychological concern in the health industry that has prompted stakeholders in psychology to establish certain guidelines for dementia evaluation and decision-making by psychotherapists (Hasegawa et al., 2005). An important aspect of these guidelines is that they conform to the ethical principles and codes of conduct most of the world’s psychological professions and associations such as the American Psychological Association. Decision-making by health care professionals while attending to depressed dementia patients is one of the core areas targeted by the guidelines. In this regard, professional conduct and endeavors by psychotherapists while making decisions on dementia treatment have been emphasized in most of the guidelines (McKellar & Gauthier, 2005). These guidelines on decision-making and engagement with dementia patients are particularly important given the role psychotherapists play in evaluating the memory changes and complaints that are characteristic of dementia (Stanley, 2008). However, the fact that most of the reduced cognitive performances occur in older people does not imply that the performance lapses are more pathological than they are physiological (Fago 2011). Instead, the decreased cognitive performances are directly proportional to the decrease in older peoples’ physiological functions (Wakisaka et al., 2003). Fortunately, psychologists are trained and equipped with skills in decision-making on dementia, supported by specialized neuropsychological tests that evaluate lapses and changes in dementia patients’ cognitive functioning (Barker, 2003). The main objective of the decision-making guidelines, however, remains the identification and specification of the most appropriate cautions, concerns and course of action for all clinicians. While engaging in decision-making on dementia treatment, psychotherapists are also advised to employ their expertise, uphold ethical values and consider patient choices and frames of mind/thought (Anthea & McCabe, 2006). In addition, various decision-making approaches such as categorical and probabilistic reasoning should be applied by psychotherapists when handling dementia patients. This paper thus explores the expertise, values, choices, probabilistic judgment and ethical engagement in decision-making for caring for depressed dementia patients. Decis ion-Making in Dementia Management Recent times have realized the replacement of the hitherto applied traditional approach of basing all medical decision-making processes on professional paternalism with more viable decision-making methods (Monahan, 2000). In the contemporary medical profession, most decisions made regarding the management of depression in dementia patie